The History of Nigerian Banking System

The History of Nigerian Banking System The existence of banks in Nigeria dates back as far as 1862 when the first Nigerian bank came into being. There was no banking legislation until 1952; at that time, Nigeria had three foreign banks and two indigenous banks with a collective total of forty branches. Despite the set standards by the 1952 ordinance, the growth of demand deposits was slowed down by the Nigerian propensity to prefer cash and distrust checks for debt settlements. 1912 experienced the establishment of the West African currency board which was to help 6 in financing the export trade of foreign firms in West Africa and to issue a West African currency which could be converted to British pound sterling. The colonial policies barred the local investment of reserves, discouraged deposit expansion, precluded discretion for monetary management and did nothing to educate Africans in developing indigenous financial institutions. This led to a motion by several Nigerian members of the house to establish a central bank to facilitate economic development. Though the motion was defeated, the colonial administration appointed a bank of England to study the issue and he advised against a central bank with emphasis on their effectiveness in an undeveloped capital market. Another study was conducted in 1957 and this resulted in the creation of a Nigerian central bank and the introduction of the Nigerian currency. The role of the central bank was to establish the Nigerian currency, control and regulate the banking system, serve as bankers to other banks in Nigeria and carry out the governments economic policy in the monetary field. This policy included control of bank credit growth, credit distribution by sector, cash reserve requirements for commercial banks, discount ratesinterest rates the Central Bank charged commercial and merchant banksand the ratio of banks long-term assets to deposits. Changes in Central Bank restrictions on credit and monetary expansion affected total demand and income. For example, in 1988, as inflation accelerated, the Central Bank tried to restrain monetary growth. During the civil war, the government limited and later suspended repatriation of dividends and profits, reduced foreign travel allowances for Nigerian citizens, limited the size of allowances to overseas public offices, required official permission for all foreign payments, and, in January 1968, issued new currency notes to replace those in circulation. Although in 1970 the Central Bank advised against dismantling of import and financial constraints too soon after the war, the oil boom soon permitted Nigeria to relax restrictions. The three largest commercial banks held about one-third of total bank deposits. In 1973 the federal government undertook to acquire a 40-percent equity ownership of the three largest foreign banks. In 1976, under the second Nigerian Enterprises Promotion Decree requiring 60-percent indigenous holdings, the federal government acquired an additional 20-percent holding in the three largest foreign banks and 60-percent ownership in the other foreign 7 banks. Yet indigenization did not change the management, control, and lending orientation toward international trade, particularly of foreign companies and their Nigerian subsidiaries of foreign banks. At the end of 1988, the banking system consisted of the Central Bank of Nigeria, forty-two commercial banks, and twenty four merchant banks, a substantial increase since 1986. Merchant banks were allowed to open checking accounts for corporations only and could not accept deposits below N50, 000. Commercial and merchant banks together had 1,500 branches in 1988, up from 1,000 in 1984. In 1988 commercial banks had assets of N52.2 billion compared to N12.6 billion for merchant banks in early 1988. In FY 1990 the government put N503 million into establishing community banks to encourage community development associations, cooperative societies, farmers groups, patriotic unions, trade groups, and other local organizations, especially in rural areas. Other financial institutions included government-owned specialized development banks: the Nigerian Industrial Development Bank, the Nigerian Bank for Commerce and Industry, and the Nigerian Agricultural Bank, as well as the Federal Savings Banks and the Federal Mortgage Bank. Also active in Nigeria were numerous insurance companies, pension funds, and finance and leasing companies. Nigeria also had a stock exchange (established in Lagos in 1961) and a number of stockbrokerage firms. The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) Decree of 1988 gave the Nigerian SEC powers to regulate and supervise the capital market. These powers included the right to revoke stockbroker registrations and approve or disapprove any new stock exchange. Established in 1988, the Nigerian Deposit Insurance Corporation increased confidence in the banks by protecting depositors against bank failures in licensed banks up to N50, 000 in return for an annual bank premium of nearly 1 percent of total deposit liabilities. 1.5.3 Types of Banks A bank is a profit making business providing financial services which includes receiving deposits of money, lending money and processing transactions. There are different types of banks and so do their functions differ. 8 1.5.3.1 Commercial Banks Commercial banks are authorized institutions providing retail banking services to the public. They accept deposits from customers and in turn make loans based on those deposits. They are noted for providing services which includes savings, current and term/fixed deposit accounts, lending, payment and transfer of money which is now facilitated by the recently introduced online banking. They also facilitate the transformation of rural areas by extending banking services. They offer professional advice to their clients on viable businesses and international trade. They are the channel for the implementation of the monetary policies from the central bank and act as authorized foreign exchange dealers in providing such facilities. They are collectors on behalf of other government and non government agencies. They buy and sell securities on behalf of their customers and boost the securities in the capital market and also sponsor companies seeking quotation on the Nigerian Stock Exchange. 1.5.3.2 Merchant Banks They started operations in 1961 with the establishment of Philip Hill (Nigeria) Limited which later merged with Nigerian Acceptances Limited in 1969. Other merchant banks later came along. As a result of the non recognition of universal banking then, merchant banks in Nigeria operate wholesale banking, which involves loan syndication, equity and debt issues, ventures capital and equipment leasing. They play important roles in pooling a consortium of banks, where the borrowing required exceeds availability of funds from commercial or any other bank. They also introduce their big clients to the Nigerian Stock Exchange and handle international transactions through a global network of affiliated banks. The banks are usually sited at urban areas and provide services to large organisations and extremely wealthy individuals. 1.5.3.3 Universal Banks Before the introduction of the universal banking concept by the federal government, operators of merchant banks had complained that their poor performances over the years 9 were due to a banking system that they claimed favoured commercial banks. The clamour for one-stop-supermarket bank became noticed in the mid 1990s when the financial system was swept by the distress in the banking sector. This virtually wrecked havoc on the economy. Many people have observed that the distinction between commercial and merchant banking is out-dated and no longer fashionable in other developed countries. The harmonised banking service is seen as cost-effective for providing a level playing field, where a customer can open an account and engage in all banking and insurance transactions from one bank to the other. The new banking concept offers a wider range of banking services, which include retailed banking, capital market activities and insurance business. The banking environment will no longer be restricted to certain functions. The new banking services commenced in January 2001. 1.5.3.4 Development Banks Development banks were established by the government, to promote national economic development. They tend to address issues of low income, insufficient savings and inadequate investment. The government and multilateral agencies sponsor the banks. The first development finance institution is the Nigerian Local Development Board, which was established in 1946 and charged with the responsibility of giving loans and grants to native authorities, cooperative societies and other public bodies for prescribed development projects (Agene 1990). Notable development banks include, Nigerian Industrial Development Bank, Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria, Nigerian Bank for Commerce and Industry, Nigerian Agricultural and Cooperative Bank, Peoples Bank of Nigeria and Nigerian Educational Bank. Others include, National Economic Recovery Fund (NERFUND), Community Banks, etc. In a nutshell, for the long term survival of a bank, they would have to make money in their operation so as to be able to meet up with their expenses. They accept deposits from customers and pay interest which can only be realized from the exchange of money between two parties. One of the ways in which they make money is by charging interest on loans. The money deposited by customers is lent out to creditors. They charge higher interest on money they lend out and pay lower on the deposits. The difference then serves as own realization from the transaction. 10 Also, they operate on fractionalized deposit. They use depositors money to make money by giving loans and earning interest. These loans are usually real estate loans and sometimes car loans. Prior to the depression, banks were allowed to invest in the stock market. As a result of the bank crash, a law was passed to end the practice and force banks and investment institutions to be different entities. 1.5.4 Impact of the Central Bank on the activities of a Bank The Central Bank of Nigeria governs the activities of banks in Nigeria and provides rules and guidelines for the execution of activities in the banking industry. The central bank is charged with the general control and administration of the monetary and financial sector policies of the federal government. Its statutory mandate includes the issuance of the legal tender currency, maintaining of the external reserves, safeguarding the international value of the legal tender currency, and acting as bankers and financial adviser to the federal government; promote monetary stability and a sound financial system in Nigeria. In understanding the monetary policy, it is important to look at it from the perspective of the mandate set for the bank. This includes maintenance of Nigerias external reserves to safeguard the international value of the legal currency, promotion and maintenance of monetary stability and a sound and efficient financial system in Nigeria, acting as banker and financial adviser to the Federal Government; and acting as lender of last resort to banks. Consequently, the Bank is charged with the responsibility of administering the Banks and Other Financial Institutions (BOFI) Act (1991) as amended, with the sole aim of ensuring high standards of banking practice and financial stability through its surveillance activities, as well as the promotion of an efficient payment system. In addition to its core functions, CBN has over the years performed some major developmental functions, focused on all the key sectors of the Nigerian economy (financial, agricultural and industrial sectors). Overall, these mandates are carried out by the Bank through its various departments.The roles of the central bank of Nigeria also include the establishment of a national microfinance consultative committee, evolvement of a clear micro finance policy that spells out the eligibility and licensing criteria, provides operational standards and guidelines to 11 stakeholders, adopting an appropriate regulatory and supervisory framework, minimizing regulatory arbitrage through periodic reviews of the policy and guidelines, continuously advocating market determined interest rates for government owned institutions and promote microfinance funds through MFBS, promoting linkage programmes between universal banks, specialized finance institutions and the micro finance banks. 1.5.4.1 Departments of central bank and their activities There a basically three departments in the central bank of Nigeria and they are the banking supervision department, development finance department and other financial institutions department. 1.5.4.1.1 Banking Supervision Department The banking supervision department of the central bank of Nigeria carries out on-site as well as off site supervision of deposit money and discount houses. Its basic functions include reviews and analyses of the financial conditions of banks based on CAMEL parameters using prudential reports, reviews and analyses of statutory returns and other relevant information, monitor trends and development for the banking sector, generate industry reports on a monthly and quarterly basis. It also monitors compliance with the law, guidelines and circulars (BOFIA (banks and other financial institutions act), CAMA, and CBN (Central Bank of Nigeria) Act etc) 1.5.4.2 Development Finance Department The development finance department was established to manage the agricultural credit guarantee scheme fund and finance the marketing operations of the defunct commodity marketing boards. In view of the expected role of the bank in the Nigerian economy, the department was restructured and renamed as the development finance department. They are concerned with identifying development finance market failures, designing strategies and policies for addressing them, formulating policies, regulatory and supervisory framework for micro/rural finance, identifying development priorities, designing and implementing alternative funding sources, monitoring and evaluating the impact of 12 development finance initiatives, advising government and the CBN Management on commodities, SME, and micro/rural finance issues. 1.5.4.3 The Other Financial Institution Department (OFI) The other financial institutions department is saddled with the responsibility of supervising and regulating the other financial institution sub-sector which include the community banks, finance companies, bureau de change, primary mortgage institution, the development finance institutions and the recently launched micro finance banks. The department carries out both on-site and off-site supervision of the other financial institutions. The off-site supervision involves the appraisal and approval of the application for licenses, nominees intothe boards and top management positions, transfer of shares and increase in hare capital, statutory returns from other financial institutions, appointment or exchange of the external auditors. The on-site aspect of the departments function includes pre commencement examination before the grant of a final license to an OFI (Other financial institutions), routine examination which is the regular examination, target examination addresses specific supervisory concerns arising from unprofessional conduct of the operations of an OFI and is carried out as the need arises while spot-checks for quick confirmation/ verification through independent on-site assessment. This includes corporate governance, accounting systems and records, quality of assets, reliability of information provided, internal control system/anti-money laundering controls and procedures, earnings, liquidity, financial condition and capital adequacy. 1.5.5 Effects of the Monetary and Economic policies on the activities of Nigerian Banks Monetary policies refers to the specific actions taken by the central bank to regulate the value, supply and cost of money in the economy with a view t achieving governments macroeconomic objectives. For many countries, the objectives of the monetary policy are explicitly stated in the laws establishing the central bank, while for others they are not. The objectives of the monetary policy may vary from country to country but there are two main views. 13 The first view calls for the monetary policy to achieve price stability, while the second view seeks to achieve price stability and other macroeconomic objectives. The central bank of Nigeria like other central banks in developing countries, achieve the monetary policy goal through the amount of money supplied. In Nigeria, the Central Bank defines money supply as comprising narrow and broad money. The definition of narrow money (M1) includes currency in circulation with non-bank public and demand deposits or current accounts in the banks. The broad money (M2) includes narrow money plus savings and time deposits, as well as foreign denominated deposits. The broad money measures the total volume of money supply in the economy. Thus, excess money supply (or liquidity) may arise in the economy when the amount of broad money is over and above the level of total output in the economy. The need to regulate money supply is based on the knowledge that there is a stable relationship between the quantity of money supply and economic activity and that if its supply is not limited to what is required to support productive activities; it will result in undesirable effects such as high prices or inflation. In summary, monetary policy in the Nigerian context refers to the actions of the Central Bank of Nigeria to regulate the money supply, so as to achieve the ultimate macroeconomic objectives of government. Several factors influence the money supply, some of which are within the control of the central bank, while others are outside its control. The specific objective and the focus of monetary policy may change from time to time, depending on the level of economic development and economic fortunes of the country. The choice of instrument to use to achieve what objective would depend on these and other circumstances. 1.6. History of the banks surveyed 1.6.1 Zenith International Bank Plc. Zenith Bank Plc was incorporated on May 30, 1990 as a private company limited by shares. In July 2004, the Bank became a public company limited by shares and subsequently launched what still remains the most successful Initial Public Offering (IPO) in the history 14 of the Nigerian Capital Market. Its 6,000,000,000 (six billion) ordinary shares of 50 kobo each were later listed on the Nigerian Stock Exchange on October 21, 2004. Zenith Bank Plc achieved yet another milestone when it raised N53.63bn in February 2006 by a Public Offer of 3,000,000,000 (three billion shares), one of the largest amount in the history of the Nigerian Capital Market. Zenith Bank Plc is one of the largest and most profitable banks in Nigeria with total assets plus contingents of over N714.5 billion after consolidation. The Bank has continued to record remarkable performance on several parameters. Zenith Banks growth and performance has earned excellent ratings from both local and international rating agencies. Agusto co. ltd has consistently rates the bank Aaa for six consecutive years. Also of repute is the fact that the bank has the lowest non performing loans to total loans ratio of 1.7% against the industry average of 18% and has grown its asset base at an average of over 50% per annum in the last five years. Its service offering covers but are not limited to corporate and commercial banking services, funds and asset management, investment banking and financial advisory services , private bank, treasury and cash management services. In delivering their vision, they put strategies in place which has being their guide in their operation. It sets out to differentiate itself in the banking industry through the quality of service it render, the caliber of their clients and the drive for a unique customer experience. The bank is easily associated with attributes such as innovation, best risk asset portfolio, high quality personnel, consistent superior financial performance and leadership in the use of information and communication technology. The banks overall vision is to make the brand a reputable international financial services network recognized for innovation, superior customer service and performance while creating premium value for all stakeholders. 1.6.2 Guaranty Trust Bank Plc Guaranty Trust Bank plc was incorporated in July 1990, as a private limited liability company wholly owned by Nigerian individuals and institutions. The bank was licensed as a Commercial Bank in August 1990 and commenced operation in February 1991. In September 1996, Guaranty Trust Bank plc became a publicly quoted company and won the Nigerian Stock Exchange Presidents Merit award that same year and again in the years 15 2000, 2003,2005 and 2006. The Bank was also runner-up for the quoted company of the year award in 2005. In February 2002, it obtained a Universal Banking license and was appointed a settlement bank by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) in 2003. Its quest to continue adding value to the businesses of its stakeholders has seen it emerge as a pacesetter and industry leader over the years. This is evident in its introduction of real time online banking in 1990, mobile, telephone and internet banking in 2002, Slip free banking in 2006 and the first fully interactive self service call centre; GT Connect in 2006. The bank was able to meet their financial obligations as they fell due and this got them the recognition of three rating agencies. Agusto Co reaffirmed its triple a risk rating every year fro the last four years, Fitch also assigned the bank a double A minus risk rating in recognition of its strong domestic franchise, good quality assets and sound earnings record and finally, Standard Poors, assigned the Bank a double B minus (BB-) risk rating. The Bank is the only Nigerian financial institution with such a rating, which is the same as the Agencies Sovereign rating for Nigeria. The bank has over the years been a recipient of several awards for superior financial performance, customer service delivery, excellent share performance, management efficiency some of which are the most respected financial institution in Nigeria (2006), the highly commended bank of the year award in Africa (2005), Most Customer friendly Bank (2007), Best Bank for Brand Development 2007. Despite the challenges which characterized the year under review(2006-2007 Financial year), the bank was able to grow its gross earnings by 46% from N34 billion to N49 billion while its profit before tax rose by 50% from N10.5 billion in the previous year to N15.7 billion. In the same period, total asset and contingents increased by 54% from N391billion a year earlier to N603 billion.

Are we all fundamentally the same?

We are all equal in the fact that we are all different. We are all the same in the fact that we will never be the same. We are united by the reality that all colors and all cultures are distinct & individual. We are harmonious in the reality that we are all held to this earth by the same gravity. We don't share blood, but we share the air that keeps us alive. How can we get people to understand that we really are fundamentally the same? I agree, that perceived specialness, drive for fulfillments, experience a life of meaning and Conception/love fundamentally makes us the same, yes we have the same needs but express them differently. We humans are similar but we have a particular need or erg to be unique however, some of us may argue with the fact that we are not fundamentally the same, as we all are not blessed with unique qualities. This may be the struggle but we all have at least one or more difference that makes us unique and as time passes we realize it ourselves. Although we all have this erg for fulfillment but culturally we express that need in different ways for example ‘Frozen’ by Chris Buck, Jennifer Lee, Elsa (character) – From the outside, Elsa looks poised, regal, and reserved, but in reality, she lives in fear as she wrestles with a mighty secret. Queen looks confident and mature, but she’s actually lonely and frightened, because of her special ability as she is not like everyone else. Her feelings are loneliness, Guilt and fear. She’s fearful of others because she thinks they will be afraid and hunt her down if they know about her powers. Once she opens up to herself and accepts her self for whom she is, she goes through this completely different phase full of laughter and self-confidence. Frozen is in format of a film and this is an effective way to put across their message as an animated film because they are watched by a wide range of audience including, families, adults, teenagers and children. In this case Elsa’s community did not accept her when she revealed her powers as they tried to hunt her down and take away her powers but using her powers and accepting her self is happiness to elsa but her community wasn’t ready to accept that. However, it is our own decision to trust our own ability to follow our own decision to trust our own ability to follow our heart and admit our differences as it can inspire others. Happy Feet’ by George Miller expresses also expresses this erge of uniqueness. Mumble (character) expresses his uniqueness by toe tapping, as he can’t sing like other penguins, which makes him different. This text is targeted at disabled people or people who can’t fit in to have faith and believe in themselves with what they can do. Hiss community wasn’t ready to appreciate his uniqueness, fortunately he didn’t feel inferior, as he was aware of his ability. Negative affectivity can make one feel guilt, fear and nervousness. The fact that we display those themes but we express it differently in different ways, makes us different. We have lots of ways for expressing it, it’s the ability for us to differentiate us from others. I have come across two texts that reveal that humans are fundamentally the samead the erg for uniqueness. We just need to be ourselves, I chose frozen because it has affected me personally and has taught me a lesson in life as well as happy feet, It puts me into deep understanding and makes me reflect on to my life and makes me reflect on to my life and makes me want to achieve anything in the world I wish to accomplish.

Therapeutic Recreations Role in Cardiac Rehabilitation Essay

Introduction We live in a changing world in many ways, and one of these evolving characteristics is that humans tend to live longer now. We in Ireland can expect to live into our mid-seventies on average. This can be attributed to scientific and technological developments and our own changing attitudes. Dunning (1993) describes this using Elias civilising process theory when he explains that society has evened out somewhat with economic growth and the growing power of the lower social strata over the past century or so. Dunning goes on to explain that as a result of the prevalence of democratic and stable governments and the growth in division of labour, it is the case that people in the more civilised societies of today are†¦show more content†¦Sports for the physically disabled moved on at a great pace from there, to where we now see Paralympians compete every four years at incredible standards in their own games following each Olympics. But it was not until 1968 that a similar association was set up for people with mental disabilities. This is when Eunice Kennedy Shriver founded Special Olympics International (SOI), which now has branches in over 130 countries and holds summer and winter games every four years. The events that brought people with disabilities from the shadows of social acceptance and inclusion, like sports participation, and the civilising process started to gain credence in academic circles. Many fields of study evolved to look at the subject. One such area is therapeutic recreation (TR) which is part of the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA). In its infancy TR was known as hospital recreation, medical recreation and recreation therapy. It finally settled on therapeutic recreation in 1967 when the National Therapeutic Recreation Society was founded (Sherrill, 1998). The essay will focus on how TR specialists assist is the rehabilitation of individuals who suffer from cardiac disease. Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) Stopford (1987) defines disability as: Any restriction or lack of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being. CVD is a common

Advertising, Creativity With Strategy Is Called...

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Creating an advertisement that will catch a viewer s attention and projecting it to the ri ght people is the objective for a successful ad. The three advertisements that will be presented below are for Ford, Tide and Aqua Lung. These three companies are very different but use some of the same advertising strategies. All three ads use a single picture with little to no words, but at the same time, the way the marketer is getting you to invest in their product is completely different. My first example of a successful advertisement is the advertisement presented by Ford (1). The first thing the adShow MoreRelatedMarketing Analysis : Creative Without Strategy1586 Words   |  7 Pagesquotes: â€Å"Creative without strategy is called â€Å"art†. Creative with strategy is called† advertising† This statement shows a discussion between two statements. 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